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DESIGN:
IN
SEARCH OF A PRODUCTION METHOD, by Debbie Garcia Tobin, was first
published as part of the WIRE MEDIASPACE
Satellite Transmissions. The following paper describes a generic
production pathway that has been used as a model for the production
of the 'Panopticon'.
IN
SEARCH OF A PRODUCTION METHOD.
The
general movement towards on-line media illustrates the complexity
of the paradigm shift in publishing. Given this crisis, and the
rapidly changing delivery environment it is necessary to reassess
the design constraints and practices of the old technologies,
in order to improve the design and production of products so that
they can exploit the full potential of non-linear environments.
Towards
this end, research is currently underway at the University of
Plymouth in collaboration with AA Publishing. The aim of the research
is to examine the changing world of publishing as it moves from
book to electronic media forms, and from fixed to live and dynamic
media.
Firstly,
the research methods will be described, the next section reviews
some examples of good practice used by a variety of multimedia
producers, in particular one company with a wide range of experience
of media production and who are currently working for the AA on
a series of CD-ROM titles.
Research
Methods:
The
purpose of the work reported here has been that of a familiarity
study in order to map out the territory of the relevant research
methods for further work. The methods used provide a picture of
both the social and technical activity detected in the design
and production of interactive multimedia products. This is achieved
by combining theoretical models with systems analysis techniques
and ethnographic methods as has been successfully used by Sommerville
et al (1992) and Jagodzinski et al (1996).
Systems analysis: documenting the information flow between processes,
and between people, using data flow diagrams - a graphical technique
that depicts information flow and the transformations that are
applied as data moves from input to output (Clifton 1990); task
analysis of the human activities to identify and understand the
tasks required (Pressman 1992); examination of departmental, project
team, and individuals' documentation, notes, and records.
Ethnographic analysis: utilises a set of methods for studying
human systems under natural conditions bringing no preconceived
notions or structures in order to understand the social context
in which activity takes place. This includes: observation, interviews
about work and working practices, and generally collecting whatever
data is available (Hammersley & Atkinson 1995). This provides
an overall picture of the functioning of a department and project
teams, and identifies the issues and obstacles to effective management
and creative design and development.
Exploratory
and Prototyping Production Methods:
Exploratory
programming is a recognised method of system production, used
when a detailed system specification is difficult to establish.
Typically, producing systems where adequacy is a more relevant
factor than correctness (Sommerville 1992). Prototyping has many
similarities except the prototype system is built and evaluated
in order to construct a detailed specification for the full system.
Any method used requires considerable planning in order to adequately
anticipate problems which may arise throughout the project life-cycle
(Vaughan 1994, Canale and Wills 1995, Mok 1996). Using an appropriate
and clearly defined production pathway, denoting optimal decision
points for change, could greatly increase the effectiveness of
product development. Mok 1996 describes his DADI: Definition,
Architecture, Design, Implementation process as one such method
for creating a suitable framework on which to plan the development
of interactive multimedia products. This framework:
1.
Defines a project;
2.
Creates an architecture that explains the process and, if necessary,
the technology platform;
3.
Defines who does what;
4.
Defines the time frame and budget; and
5.
Establishes efficient communication among all the players.
A
rigorous approach to this kind of project planning, particularly
in the early stages of development is important. One of the key
production phases for innovative projects, according to Lawson
1980, is Research and Development. According to idealised models
(Vertelney and Booker 1990, Attica 1995, Namuren 1996, England
and Finney 1996) this should be performed early on in the project
and used to: identify major technical problems, test key aspects
of the functionality, and clarify the overall look and feel of
the product.
An
additional advantage to be gained from using a clearly defined
pathway is that everyone is aware of all the stages involved in
production and the relevant documentation required. It is essential
in such multidisciplinary teams that all staff understand the
content and become familiar with the use of these documents. A
familiarity with the types of documentation required is also likely
to encourage people to revise their own documentation. This type
of unintrusive control helps maintain the level of evolution allowed
in a project, ensuring all significant changes are formally acknowledged.
Knowledge
and Expertise:
Recent
research (GISTICS 1995) has shown that buyers are bored with the
majority of CD-ROM titles currently available. It is not so much
the depth of content which fails to satisfy them, but the lack
of creative treatment and interactive richness, coupled with ever
increasing market expectations.
'The
majority of multimedia titles released so far still tend to suffer
from a lack of imagination and the creativity gap, which separates
technology's capabilities from the ability of the content providers
to create engaging, high value titles. Developers should consider
the qualities and potential of the new medium if excellent product
and high quality brand image is to be achieved.' (Thorn, 1994).
An
imbalance of production and design skills within a team, creates
an imbalance in the attention to content, and the attention to
treatment and interactivity. More fundamentally, the core of this
problem is the lack of a robust visual vocabulary and language
for interactive multimedia. It is the inheritance of practice
and mindset from traditional media design and production which
needs to be addressed in order to bring these ideals to fruition.
Summary
of Potential Problems:
Significant imbalance in the range of expertise within a team.
Tendency towards isolated working rather than cohesive project
teams.
Lack of close and ongoing managerial involvement with each individual
project.
Poor working communications between team members, and between
teams and management.
Roles and responsibilities not clearly defined: jobs left unassigned,
and job titles not always reflecting work actually performed.
Projects tend to run an inefficient 'evolve-constrain' life-cycle
and generally lack focus.
A substantial R&D phase to identify potential problems?
Prototypes require greater technical and user evaluation.
A specified production pathway?
Need to improve understanding and familiarity with all documentation,
and maintain strict version control.
Imbalance between attention to content and attention to treatment
and interactivity.
Approaches
for Change:
This
section offers some ideas for potential solutions to the problems
identified, and an example methods indicating key phases of work
and the relevant documentation pertaining to these phases.
Personnel:
In
order to redress the imbalance of skills in a team, recruitment
of permanent staff or the use of freelance workers, from a wide
variety of backgrounds, might enable teams to be closer to the
ideal practice recommended by (Kim 1990, Hoffos et al 1992, England
and Finney 1996, Mok 1996, Namuren 1996). Experience in interactivity,
audio-visual production, and programming, being especially important.
Studies
of interdisciplinary collaboration (Vertelney, Arent and Lieberman
1990, Kim 1990) and interactive media research and developers
(Eubank 1996, Freeth 1996) would also suggest that a strong commitment
to the cross-training and adaptation of traditional staff would
be particularly judicious: interdisciplinary collaboration is
most successful when there is a sensitivity and understanding
of the other discipline on which to build. This mutual understanding
greatly increases the value of expert advice and allows more informed
judgements to be made on the team consequences of individuals'
actions.
There
are a variety of ways this could be achieved, including: sending
staff on short courses run commercially, or, holding a series
of courses internally. EMG have found it beneficial to periodically
run courses in-house for their staff; people employed from a variety
of disciplines are able to cross train, achieving a working understanding
of different aspects of media production, or to update their knowledge
and keep abreast of the newest technological advances. They also
encourage staff to give seminars on any relevant new techniques
they are working on. This not only extends knowledge but it provides
a forum for discussion and improves communication generally.
Whatever
the level and range of expertise available to a department, successful
projects are produced by teams that work and communicate together
effectively (Canale and Wills 1995). Therefore, included below,
is an outline of the stages required for the assembly of successful
project teams, based on the working practices of EMG (Namuren
1996) and other developers of interactive media (Hoffos et al
1992, England and Finney 1996).
1.
In the early stages of the project, before any production work
begins, the appropriate roles and skills required should be identified.
This assessment must be made according to the nature and style
of the particular project being undertaken and used to select
a team with the most appropriate blend of skills. For example:
'The
content of any one programme will influence the balance of skills
on the production team...A highly-visual game packed with original
graphics may call for a team of visual designers, plus one good
all-rounder to write both the script and program...' (Hoffos et
al 1992).
2.
When the team members have been identified, each person is assigned
a role or roles within the team. Each role has clearly defined
responsibilities with areas of collaborative decision making indicated.
It is important that this assignment of roles also includes those
specialists which may not be required until much later in the
project. Their inclusion from the beginning will not only ensure
that creative ideas are viable, but will unite the project team
very early on. (Namuren 1996).
3.
Once assembled, in order to maintain good communications within
project teams, it is helpful for team members to be located in
close proximity to one another. However, if this is not possible,
then it must be ensured that other appropriate forms of communication
are made as easy as possible to maintain. The key to successful
collaborative working is a contemplative and communication-rich
environment (England and Finney 1996).
Project
Management:
Project
management for multimedia is a particularly complex and time consuming
job due to the nature of the products, and the wide range of skills
required for product development. In order to maintain focus and
adequate control of each project, it may be wise to consider the
appointment of a project manager for each project. This will enable
the project manager to keep a clear overall view of the design
and production, and sufficient time to control the project successfully.
Whichever
model of project management is followed, there is some evidence
to suggest that the devolution from senior management to project
management of a significant level of responsibility is a contributing
factor to the success or failure of a project (England and Finney
1996). Many examples of this can be seen: Dorling Kindersley -
the editor and designer take the management and ownership of a
project, EMG - very early stages led by executive producer, when
the style of the product is agreed the project manager/producer
takes over responsibility. A final example is Attica, after many
months of interviews and analysis of the company, a management
consultancy firm identified many of their problems as the direct
result of the director retaining too much control (Attica 1995).
A
well defined production pathway is an essential component of any
project as complex as multimedia production. If correctly adhered
to, the production pathway will optimise the creation and delivery
of the product, without compromising artistic integrity. Indeed,
it is hoped that it will strengthen it, by facilitating the realisation
of creative ideas. However, it is important that the pathway used
is appropriate for the type of product being created and for the
environment in which it is being produced. In such a rapidly changing
technological environment as interactive multimedia, it is also
essential that any pathway is flexible enough to meet unforeseen
circumstances and events.
At
present, there is no recognised 'best practice' critical pathway
for multimedia production. Producer companies tend to follow their
traditional production models, with incremental changes being
made as and when problems arise. However, these models for design
and production are fundamentally constrained by the capabilities
and limitations of different and often redundant, technologies
and products. This not only affects the efficiency of production
but it can also influence the style of products created:
'It
is noticeable that most multimedia products bear clearly the fingerprints
of the particular trades which have produced them - of television,
of book publishing, of database design, etc. - failing often to
establish any new aesthetic.' (Boyd Davis 1995).
Whilst
we see the convergence of a variety of technologies, we also see
the inheritance of practice. However, many argue that what is
required, is the ability to respond to these changes and encompass
different styles of working, contributing, and communicating,
appropriate to the new medium (Oren 1990, Blattner and Dannenberg
1992, Boyd Davis 1995).
Preliminary
findings have been used to construct a prototype production pathway.
This is largely based on the pathway used by EMG. The prototype
is shown highlighting: key stages of design and production, pertinent
decision/approval points, and the relevant documentation used.
Perhaps
one of the most important aids to successful team working is the
strict control and correct use of relevant documentation (Namuren
1996). The correct version of a detailed product definition can
help prevent costly and time consuming mistakes being made. In
order for these documents to be useful, there must be sufficient
information within them, without being so detailed as to be unmanageable.
Frequent (but realistic) updates are also desirable as this maintains
accuracy and relevance (Sommerville 1992). Documentation is not
only a method for disseminating quantities of complex instructions,
guidelines, and information for use on a daily basis, it is also
invaluable as a record for future projects, upgrades, platform
or language versions, or simply a change in project personnel.
Knowledge
and Expertise:
Innovative
products greatly increase the level of risk inherent in a project,
but creative and innovative work is required for high quality
multimedia production. Controlled and targeted innovation in projects
may be an appropriate way of managing risk whilst consistently
improving quality. This could be assisted by the creation of a
multiskilled research group to bring new creative ideas to future
projects, ideas for innovative and experimental treatments, new
technologies, and to keep abreast of relevant current research
(Zolli 1996).
In
order to achieve and maintain market leader status it is essential
to understand the technologies used and their liability to change
(Mok 1996).
'Designs
that anticipate technological changes before they arrive allow
for the seamless integration of new technologies as they emerge.
These solutions are "designed forward". Over time, such designs
are more consistent for users and more cost effective ...' (Zolli,
1996).
A
recent survey of over 7,000 multimedia developers undertook a
benchmarking of industry 'best practice'. Using this large survey
sample enabled them to identify a very small group of outstanding
'productivity pioneers' and 'profit pacesetters': '...individuals
and firms who derive significantly greater benefits from their
technology than industry norms...' (GISTICS 1995). The results
of their survey led them to formulate a set of management recommendations
for investment. Talent, Systems, and Branding, where consistent
investment produced consistent productivity gains and technical
breakthroughs.
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